The central figure of Buddhism is not a god but a human being, Siddhartha Gautama. According to Buddhist tradition, Gautama was heir to a small Himalayan kingdom, sometime around 500BC. The young prince was deeply affected by the suffering evident all around him. He saw that men and women, children and old people, all suffer not just from occasional calamities such as war and plague, but also from anxiety, frustration and discontent, all of which seem to be an inseparable part of the human condition. People pursue wealth and power, acquire knowledge and possessions, beget sons and daughters, and build houses and palaces. Yet no matter what they achieve, they are never content. Those who live in poverty dream of riches. Those who have a million want two million. Those who have two million want 10 million. Even the rich and famous are rarely satisfied. They too are haunted by ceaseless cares and worries, until sickness, old age and death put a bitter end to them. Everything that one has accumulated vanishes like smoke. Life is a pointless rat race. But how to escape it?

佛教的核心人物释迦牟尼不是神而是人，俗名乔达摩·悉达多（Siddhartha Gautama）。根据佛教经典，释迦牟尼大约在公元前500年是个喜马拉雅山区小国的王子，看到身边的人深深陷于苦难之中，而心生不忍。他看到人不分男女老幼，不仅时常受到战争和瘟疫等灾难袭击，还无法免于种种焦虑、沮丧和不满的情绪，似乎这一切都是人生难以避免的事。人类追求财富和权力，获得知识和财富，生儿育女，建起宫殿和房屋。但不论取得多少成就，却仍然无法满足。穷人梦想着要变富，有一百万的想要两百万，有两百万的想要一千万。而且就算真的有钱了、有名了，他们还是不满意，还是有无尽的烦恼和忧虑，无法从生老病死中解脱。至死，一切如梦幻泡影消失，生命就像是毫无意义的追寻。然而，这个轮回该怎样才能跳出？

At the age of twenty-nine Gautama slipped away from his palace in the middle of the night, leaving behind his family and possessions. He travelled as a homeless vagabond throughout northern India, searching for a way out of suffering. He visited ashrams and sat at the feet of gurus but nothing liberated him entirely – some dissatisfaction always remained. He did not despair. He resolved to investigate suffering on his own until he found a method for complete liberation. He spent six years meditating on the essence, causes and cures for human anguish. In the end he came to the realisation that suffering is not caused by ill fortune, by social injustice, or by divine whims. Rather, suffering is caused by the behaviour patterns of one’s own mind.

ashram n. 静修处

whim n. 冲动，心血来潮

在29岁时，释迦牟尼半夜离宫，抛下了财富和家人，流浪走遍印度北部，希望为这一切痛苦寻找出路。他前往各个修院修行，聆听各个大师讲道，但还是无法完全感到解脱，有什么不满依然萦绕。他并未绝望，决心反求诸己，直到找到彻底解决的方法为止。他入禅六年，思索各种人类苦痛的本质、原因和解决方式。最后他体会到，一切苦难并非来自噩运、社会不公或是神祇的任性，而是出于每个人自己心中的思想模式。

Gautama’s insight was that no matter what the mind experiences, it usually reacts with craving, and craving always involves dissatisfaction. When the mind experiences something distasteful it craves to be rid of the irritation. When the mind experiences something pleasant, it craves that the pleasure will remain and will intensify. Therefore, the mind is always dissatisfied and restless. This is very clear when we experience unpleasant things, such as pain. As long as the pain continues, we are dissatisfied and do all we can to avoid it. Yet even when we experience pleasant things we are never content. We either fear that the pleasure might disappear, or we hope that it will intensify. People dream for years about finding love but are rarely satisfied when they find it. Some become anxious that their partner will leave; others feel that they have settled cheaply, and could have found someone better. And we all know people who manage to do both.

释迦牟尼认为，人遇到事情通常就会产生欲念，而欲念总是会造成不满。遇到不喜欢的事，就想躲开；遇到喜欢的事，就想维持并增加这份愉快。但正因如此，人心就永远不满、永远不安。这点在碰上不悦的时候格外明显，像是感觉疼痛的时候，只要疼痛持续，我们就一直感到不满，用尽办法想要解决。然而，就算是遇上欢乐的事，我们也从不会真正满足，而是一直担心这种欢乐终将结束或是无法再持续或增强。有些人多年来一直在寻找爱情，但等到真的找着了爱情，却还是不满足。有的开始整天担心对方可能会离开；有的又觉得自己太过屈就，应该再找更好的人。（而且，我们也都认识某些人，又担心别人离开，又觉得自己屈就）。

Great gods can send us rain, social institutions can provide justice and good health care, and lucky coincidences can turn us into millionaires, but none of them can change our basic mental patterns. Hence even the greatest kings are doomed to live in angst, constantly fleeing grief and anguish, forever chasing after greater pleasures.

虽然上天可以赐雨，社会机制可以提供公平正义和卫生保健，有好的运气就可以变成百万富翁，但不论如何，我们的基本心态都不会改变。因此，就算是最伟大的国王也无法避免焦虑，得不断逃避着悲伤和痛苦，也总是想要追寻更多的快乐。

Gautama found that there was a way to exit this vicious circle. If, when the mind experiences something pleasant or unpleasant, it simply understands things as they are, then there is no suffering. If you experience sadness without craving that the sadness go away, you continue to feel sadness but you do not suffer from it. There can actually be richness in the sadness. If you experience joy without craving that the joy linger and intensify, you continue to feel joy without losing your peace of mind.

释迦牟尼找到一种方法可以跳出这种恶性循环。在事物带来快乐或痛苦的时候，重点是要看清事物的本质，而不是着重在它带来的感受，于是就能不再为此所困。虽然感受悲伤，但不要希望悲伤结束，于是虽然仍有悲伤，也能不再为此而困。即使仍然悲伤，也是一种丰硕的经验。虽然感受快乐，但不要希望快乐继续，于是虽然仍有快乐，也能不失去心中的平静。

But how do you get the mind to accept things as they are, without craving? To accept sadness as sadness, joy as joy, pain as pain? Gautama developed a set of meditation techniques that train the mind to experience reality as it is, without craving. These practices train the mind to focus all its attention on the question, ‘What am I experiencing now?’ rather than on ‘What would I rather be experiencing?’ It is difficult to achieve this state of mind, but not impossible.

但要怎样才能让心里接受事物的本质，而放下种种欲求，知道苦即为苦、乐即为乐？释迦牟尼制定一套冥想的技巧，能够训练心灵感受事物的本质而排除种种欲求。通过训练，心灵专注在 “我现在是什么感受？”，而不是问：“为什么是我？”这种境界很难达到，但并非不可能。

Gautama grounded these meditation techniques in a set of ethical rules meant to make it easier for people to focus on actual experience and to avoid falling into cravings and fantasies. He instructed his followers to avoid killing, promiscuous sex and theft, since such acts necessarily stoke the fire of craving (for power, for sensual pleasure, or for wealth). When the flames are completely extinguished, craving is replaced by a state of perfect contentment and serenity, known as nirvana (the literal meaning of which is ‘extinguishing the fire’). Those who have attained nirvana are fully liberated from all suffering. They experience reality with the utmost clarity, free of fantasies and delusions. While they will most likely still encounter unpleasantness and pain, such experiences cause them no misery. A person who does not crave cannot suffer.

释迦牟尼将冥想落实在各种道德规范上，好让信众更能专注在实际的感受，而不会落入各种欲求和幻想之中。他要求信众不杀生、不邪淫、不偷盗，因为这些作为一定会让欲望如野火燎原，而一心追求权力、感官享受或财富。等到这些火焰彻底扑灭，原本的欲求就换成了圆满和寂静，称为涅槃（梵文的原义就是“熄灭”）。达到涅槃，也就是解脱了所有苦痛，能够无比清晰地感受身边的现实，没有什么幻想和幻象。虽然人们很有可能还是会遇到苦痛，但苦痛已经不再能影响他们。毕竟，无欲则无苦。

According to Buddhist tradition, Gautama himself attained nirvana and was fully liberated from suffering. Henceforth he was known as ‘Buddha’, which means ‘The Enlightened One’. Buddha spent the rest of his life explaining his discoveries to others so that everyone could be freed from suffering. He encapsulated his teachings in a single law: suffering arises from craving; the only way to be fully liberated from suffering is to be fully liberated from craving; and the only way to be liberated from craving is to train the mind to experience reality as it is.

根据佛教经典，释迦牟尼本人就达到了涅槃，从痛苦中完全解脱。而在这之后他就被称为“佛陀”，意为“觉悟者”。接着，佛陀一生前往各地普传佛法，希望让所有人离苦得乐。佛陀的教诲一言以蔽之：痛苦来自欲望；要从痛苦中解脱，就要放下欲望；而要放下欲望，就必须训练心智，体验事物的本质。

This law, known as dharma or dhamma, is seen by Buddhists as a universal law of nature. That ‘suffering arises from craving’ is always and everywhere true, just as in modern physics E always equals mc2. Buddhists are people who believe in this law and make it the fulcrum of all their activities. Belief in gods, on the other hand, is of minor importance to them. The first principle of monotheist religions is ‘God exists. What does He want from me?’ The first principle of Buddhism is ‘Suffering exists. How do I escape it?’

fulcrum n. 支点，支柱

对佛教徒来说，这条“佛法”就是举世皆同的自然法则，“痛苦来自欲望”这件事举世皆同，就像在现代物理里E总是等于MC²。所以，所谓的“佛教徒”，就是相信这条法则，将这条法则落实在一切日常活动中的人。另一方面，是不是信仰某个神灵，对他们来说就不是那么重要。一神论宗教的最高原则是：唯一真神确实存在，那么他想从我这里要什么呢？佛教的最高原则，则是：痛苦确实存在，我该如何逃离呢？

Buddhism does not deny the existence of gods – they are described as powerful beings who can bring rains and victories – but they have no influence on the law that suffering arises from craving. If the mind of a person is free of all craving, no god can make him miserable. Conversely, once craving arises in a person’s mind, all the gods in the universe cannot save him from suffering.

佛教并不否认有神祇存在，认为他们有强大的神通，能够带来降雨和胜利，然而神祇对于“由欲得苦”这条法则并无能为力。如果能够无欲无求，任何神祇都无法让人感到痛苦。相对而言，如果人有了欲望，任何神祇也无法拯救他脱离痛苦。

Yet much like the monotheist religions, premodern natural-law religions such as Buddhism never really rid themselves of the worship of gods. Buddhism told people that they should aim for the ultimate goal of complete liberation from suffering, rather than for stops along the way such as economic prosperity and political power. However, 99 per cent of Buddhists did not attain nirvana, and even if they hoped to do so in some future lifetime, they devoted most of their present lives to the pursuit of mundane achievements. So they continued to worship various gods, such as the Hindu gods in India, the Bon gods in Tibet, and the Shinto gods in Japan.

但也如同一神论的宗教，佛教这种前现代的自然法则宗教还是无法摆脱神祇崇拜。佛教告诉信众，他们应该不断追求达到涅槃境界，不要为了名利停下脚步。然而，99%的佛教徒都无法达到这个境界，而且就算他们一心希望最后能达到这个目标，日常生活里多半都还是追求着世俗的成就。于是，佛教徒还是崇拜着各种神祇，像是在印度的佛教徒拜着印度的神，西藏的佛教徒拜着本教（Bon）的神，日本的佛教徒也拜着神道教的神。

Moreover, as time went by several Buddhist sects developed pantheons of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. These are human and non-human beings with the capacity to achieve full liberation from suffering but who forego this liberation out of compassion, in order to help the countless beings still trapped in the cycle of misery. Instead of worshipping gods, many Buddhists began worshipping these enlightened beings, asking them for help not only in attaining nirvana, but also in dealing with mundane problems. Thus we find many Buddhas and bodhisattvas throughout East Asia who spend their time bringing rain, stopping plagues, and even winning bloody wars – in exchange for prayers, colourful flowers, fragrant incense and gifts of rice and candy.

bodhisattva n. 菩萨，开悟的人

forego v. 领先

此外，佛教的几个教派也随着时间发展出满天诸佛菩萨。诸佛菩萨是人也非人，他们已经能够达到涅槃、解脱痛苦，但为了解脱和帮助还在轮回中的芸芸众生，倒驾慈航重入世间。所以，佛教徒崇拜的并不是神祇，而是这些已经开悟而尚未成佛的人，除了希望他们协助达到涅槃的境界，也希望他们帮忙处理一些世俗的问题。于是，我们就看到整个东亚有许多佛菩萨得负责降雨、医病，甚至还得保佑杀敌求胜，而信众也虔心祈祷，为他们焚香，献上各色鲜花、稻米和甜品。